Moments of Disclosure: A Temporal Approach to Children’s and Young

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-026-01137-7

Moments of Disclosure: A Temporal Approach to Children’s and Young People’s Disclosure of Abuse

Sofie Henze-Pedersen1 · Michella Ida Mikuta1

Received: 21 January 2026 / Accepted: 30 June 2026 © The Author(s) 2026, modified publication 2026

Abstract Purpose This paper examines the complex process of disclosure of childhood abuse. Although some children and young people share their experiences informally in close relationships, only a small proportion make formal disclosure to authorities. To gain a deeper understanding of how disclosure unfolds, the paper employs a temporal perspective to investigate the different moments that hold the potential to support the process of disclosure. Methods Qualitative interviews based on a timeline approach was conducted with 20 children and young people aged 12–25 years from Denmark, who had experienced abuse perpetrated by a parent or another adult connected to the family. The interviews investigated to whom, when, how, and why children and young people disclose to explore the influence of different relational contexts. Results Disclosure takes place over time through interaction with other people and surrounding circumstances. The process unfolds through three stages – recognition, uncovering, and handling – that describe the broader trajectory of disclosure. These stages are constituted by different and changing moments that support, create, delay, or close opportunities for disclosure, ranging from critical moments of change to missed opportunities. Conclusion Disclosure occurs on a continuum, which is fluid, temporal, and relational. It unfolds across different spaces of possibility that may change over time. This highlights the fragility inherent in the process, as a child’s or young person’s own understandings, thoughts, and expectations – together with surrounding relationships and circumstances – can both enable and constrain the spaces of possibility.

Keywords Disclosure · Abuse · Children and young people · Time · Moments of disclosure

Introduction aware of these cases either late or not at all, thereby entailing the risk that children and young people will not receive Many children and young people who experience child- the necessary support to overcome the abuse (Goodmanhood abuse do not disclose this to others (Jensen et al., Brown et al., 2003). This paper examines experiences of 2005; Mathews et al., 2025; Thulin et al., 2020). Although abuse occurring within the family context, aiming to gain a some share their experiences informally with people close deeper understanding of the different moments that hold the to them (e.g., family or friends), research shows that only a potential to support children’s and young people’s process small proportion formally disclose abuse to the authorities of disclosure. (Bloomfield-Utting & Skinner, 2025; Jernbro et al., 2017; Research on disclosure constitutes a vast subfield within Thulin et al., 2020). As a result, authorities may become research on childhood abuse (Allnock, 2017; Jernbro et al., 2017) and has been crucial in developing the understanding of disclosure as a process rather than an event – a process that may unfold over a long period of time (Alaggia et al., Sofie Henze-Pedersen shp@vive.dk 2019; McElvaney et al., 2014; Morrison et al., 2018; Thulin et al., 2020). Studies on children’s and young people’s Michella Ida Mikuta miki@vive.dk disclosure of abuse, show great variability in the timing and extent of disclosure, which may be full, delayed or 1 The Danish Center for Social Science Research (VIVE), partial in relation to when the abuse took place (Andresen, Herluf Trolles Gade 11, Copenhagen K 1052, Denmark

2024; Goodman-Brown et al., 2003; McElvaney, 2015). where they are invited to talk about their home life, potenThis indicates that time is central to understanding the tially creating a moment in which others become aware of process of disclosure, which prompts us to draw on tem- the abuse (critical moment). By examining these moments, poral approaches to investigating this process (Allnock, we highlight both critical moments that can bring about 2017; Andresen, 2024). This approach allows us to move change and absent moments in which disclosure does not beyond a focus on initial disclosure or distinct types of dis- materialize (see also Bloomfield-Utting & Skinner, 2025). closure, and instead investigate the complexity of disclosure (Bloomfield-Utting & Skinner, 2025). In doing so, we Time in the Process of Disclosure attend to the various moments in which disclosure unfolds – moments that encompass not only children and young Disclosing experiences of childhood abuse is not a single people themselves, but also the relationships and circum- event but a process that takes place over time as well as in stances surrounding them. Most research on disclosure has relation to, and through interaction with, others (McElvaney focused on the moment at which children and young people et al., 2014; Morrison et al., 2018; Reitsema & Grietens, open up about their experiences for the first time, while less 2016). Understanding how this process unfolds is essenresearch has explored how they experience the subsequent tial to gaining a deeper understanding of what influences process during which their disclosed information is handled children’s and young people’s processes of disclosure. This by the authorities and other professionals (Linell, 2017). In paper therefore adopts a temporal perspective with a parthis paper, we conceptualize disclosure as not only encom- ticular focus on the different moments that constitute the passing the time when children and young people initially process of disclosure. express experiences of abuse, but also as the time afterwards during which they contemplate expressing their experiences Literature on the Process of Disclosure or have to recount them to others. The paper presents an analysis of the process of disclo- The time or moment that children and young people dissure among children and young people who have experi- close abuse is a topic that has preoccupied researchers enced childhood abuse perpetrated by a parent or another across academic disciplines (see e.g., Goodman-Brown et adult connected to their family. The analysis is based on al., 2003; Jernbro et al., 2017; McElvaney et al., 2014). A timeline interviews with 20 children and young people aged substantial body of this research focuses on sexual abuse, 12–25 years with experience of different forms of abuse. and it is therefore primarily this literature that has provided We employ a broad definition of abuse, including partici- insights into the temporal dimensions of disclosure. Previpants with experiences of physical violence, psychologi- ous research has demonstrated that there is great variability cal violence, parental intimate partner violence, and sexual in the timing of disclosure (Goodman-Brown et al., 2003), abuse. Our focus in this paper is not on differentiating or highlighting the temporal dimension of disclosure, which comparing between forms of abuse (see also Linell, 2017; may be full, delayed or partial in relation to when the abuse Ungar et al., 2009), but on capturing shared temporal pro- took place (Andresen, 2024; McElvaney, 2015). Moreover, cesses across these experiences. We frame the analysis in a the ways in which disclosure takes place can change over temporal perspective that outlines three stages in the pro- time and take different paths (Landberg et al., 2023). For cess of disclosure: (1) The stage of recognition, (2) the stage instance, a study on young people’s disclosure of physical of uncovering, and (3) the stage of handling. We explore and sexual abuse describes their use of both indirect and how disclosure unfolds over time, attending to the differ- direct strategies – such as choosing not to talk about it or disent moments of disclosure – moments constituted by various closing to a peer – and shows how these strategies may shift spaces of possibility – which hold the potential to support over time (Ungar et al., 2009). Furthermore, research indichildren’s and young people’s process of disclosure. These cates that both the type of abuse and gender can influence moments reflect different spaces of possibility in which rela- disclosure, with children and young people – particularly tionships and circumstances create the potential for change, boys – subjected to sexual abuse, being less willing to dissuch as allowing children to recognize their experiences, close compared to those experiencing other forms of abuse prompting others to become aware of the abuse, or facilitat- (Lev-Wiesel & First, 2018). Disclosure necessarily presuping access to help and support. Such moments may arise, poses a recipient, making it a relational process (Landberg for example, when children encounter other family environ- et al., 2023; Reitsema & Grietens, 2016). The moments and ments that prompt a developing awareness of their own sit- timing of disclosure therefore intersects with the responses uation (emerging moments); in situations, where concerns of others. For example, a study on sexual abuse shows that about how others might perceive them influence whether disclosure is often supported or inhibited by interpersonal or not they disclose (weighing moments); or in situations relationships and contextual factors (Allnock, 2017). The

13

presence of trusted relations plays an important role, as something happens, or how it is experienced as the right individuals may attempt to disclose gradually over time – or wrong time – and tempo – the speed, pace, or intensity through direct or indirect expressions – which can be recog- at which something occurs (Adam, 1995). This theoretical nized, encouraged, and supported by sensitive questioning approach enables us to explore how the process of discloand attentive listening (Brattfjell & Flåm, 2019). Taken sure unfolds in, and is experienced over, time. together, these findings suggest that disclosure of abuse is Situating the analysis within a temporal perspective by a temporal process that involves diverse strategies through exploring different moments of disclosure allows us to which children and young people express or communicate investigate the factors that characterize these moments and their experiences. how they are influenced by other people and circumstances. To complement the literature that has primarily focused This allows us to explore the fragility and uncertainty on sexual abuse, this paper employs a broad definition of within these moments as to whether – and in what ways abuse to support an exploratory analysis aimed at captur- – they may lead to change (e.g., changing the child’s or ing variation in the moments that may support children’s young person’s understanding, or that others become aware and young people’s disclosure processes across participants’ of the abuse). experiences of abuse. Methods and Ethics A Temporal Approach to Understanding Disclosure We employed a qualitative, retrospective design using timeChildhood abuse occur at a specific moment or moments in line interviews with 20 children and young people aged time; yet the individual’s understanding of these experiences 12–25 years to explore how disclosure of childhood abuse and their meaning may develop over time (see also Henze- unfolds over time – from the first signs and ways of expresPedersen, 2026), which in turn can influence how they sion to the handling of the case by authorities and profesexpress these experiences to others. One approach to concep- sionals. The timeline interview approach was selected as it is tualizing the process of disclosure is through the notion of particularly suited to eliciting temporally ordered narratives turning points or critical moments. Within the field of child- and supporting participants in situating complex life events hood abuse, these terms have been used to describe both the within their broader biographical context. This approach moment at which disclosure begins (Andresen, 2024), and enables both the sequencing of key events and an explothe ways in which various life events interact with and influ- ration of participants’ subjective interpretations of those ence disclosure (Allnock, 2017). Such moments should not events (Adriansen, 2012), which is central to understandbe understood as single or discrete events, but rather as part ing the process of disclosure. By situating disclosure within of a process (Andresen, 2024). Critical moments are events participants’ wider life experiences, the method allows for that have important consequences for one’s life (Thomson analysis of how contextual factors shape both the timing and et al., 2002, p. 339). Such events are influenced by vari- form of disclosure. ous conditions, responses, chances and timing (Holland & The timeline interviews investigated to whom, when, Thomson, 2009; Thomson et al., 2002), and the interplay how, and why the children and young people had disclosed of these factors can influence the outcomes of the events. abuse. The interviews were conducted by the authors. Each In the context of abuse, research has, for instance, shown participant and the interviewer co-constructed a timeline that the responses of others can lead children and young divided into five areas: (1) family, (2) friends/peers, (3) people to withhold disclosure (Alaggia, 2004). Therefore, school/education, (4) leisure, and (5) others (e.g., child disclosure can be understood as an ever-shifting process that welfare professionals). The interviewer started by asking unfolds in relation to multiple people (Bloomfield-Utting & the participants when they started realizing that what they Skinner, 2025), and is constituted by different moments that were experiencing constituted abuse, and explored their may entail significant change but also cautious potential or disclosure process by moving back and forth on the timelimited potential (Allnock, 2017). We conceptualize such line to talk about people and events that had influenced the moments of disclosure as different spaces of possibility process. First, the interview explored the process and conthat can either support or constrain disclosure. To capture siderations leading to disclosure. This theme illuminated to and identify such moments, we draw on theories of time whom, when, and how the children and young people dis- (see e.g., Adam, 1995; Andresen, 2024), which understand closed their experiences and uncovered the considerations time in relation to individuals’ contexts, including the social underpinning their process. Second, the interview explored relationships and circumstances that shape how time is the case handling (e.g., by child welfare services or police). experienced. A temporal approach also attends to the tem- This theme addressed how the children and young people poral elements that encompass time, such as timing – when experienced the handling of their case (if a case had been

13

initiated), including whom they had spoken to, at what point ensuring formal ethical approval, we took a range of meain time, and how they experienced those conversations. sures to support and protect the participants. All particiThe participants were recruited from a range of sources pants received both written and oral information about the to ensure a variety of disclosure narratives and to ensure study prior to the interview. For participants under the age representation in relation to gender, age, socioeconomic of 18, one or both parents were also informed. However, background, ethnicity and type of abuse. The recruitment in line with previous research, parents or caregivers who strategy was designed to support an exploratory analysis had perpetrated abuse were not informed in order to protect by capturing variation across participants’ backgrounds and the participants (Morris et al., 2012). During the interview, experiences of abuse. Such variation was not intended to the interviewer focused on creating a comfortable and supenable comparison between categories (e.g., gender, age, or portive environment. The interviews were conducted at a type of abuse), but rather to identify cross-cutting patterns location chosen by the participants, and in settings where across diverse cases (Patton, 1990). In this sense, variation others could not overhear the conversation. The interviewer in the sample served to enhance empirical and analytical used open-ended questions to enable the children and young breadth as well as support conceptual development, rather people to retain control over the aspects of their experiences than to facilitate subgroup analysis. The children and young they wanted to share (Evang & Øverlien, 2015; Øverlien & people were recruited by reaching out to Barnahus, shelters, Holt, 2018). The interviewer also paid close attention to the organizations focusing on abuse, treatment services, as well participants’ verbal and non-verbal expressions (e.g., body as through posts on social media. The inclusion criteria were language and silences), and asked whether they wished to children and young people who had been subjected to child- take a break or end the interview if they showed signs of hood abuse (physical violence, psychological violence, sex- discomfort (Eriksson & Näsman, 2012; Evang & Øverlien, ual abuse or parental intimate partner violence) perpetrated 2015; Morris et al., 2012). by a parent or another adult within the family context before The interviews were analyzed using NVivo. Based on an the age of 18. An upper age limit of 25 years was applied initial reading of the interviews, a thematic coding approach in order to capture experiences situated within a relatively was employed to organize the children’s and young people’s similar historical and institutional context, including com- disclosure narratives (Mason, 2002). The first reading of the parable legislative frameworks and professional responses interviews focused on the moment that the children and to childhood abuse. The exclusion criteria included abuse young people first expressed or told someone about the abuse perpetrated by siblings or by individuals outside the family, and how they experienced the (formal) process afterwards as well as participants who were still living with the perpe- as the information was handled by the authorities. However, trator at the time of the study. The latter exclusion criterion the interviews showed that children and young people often was applied to minimize potential risk and ensure partici- went through a prolonged process of understanding and pant safety (Morris et al., 2012). The participants comprised coming to terms with the abuse, which often began before 12 girls or young women, and 8 boys or young men. The they first expressed their experiences to someone. Thus, the majority were aged 12–17 years (14 participants), with the child’s or young person’s own recognition appeared to be remaining aged 18–25 years (6 participants). Most had expe- central to the disclosure process. Accordingly, we devised rienced physical and/or psychological violence, and nearly three analytical categories to characterize the children’s and half had experienced parental intimate partner violence. young people’s overall disclosure trajectories: the stage of Finally, four participants had experienced sexual abuse. For recognition, the stage of uncovering, and the stage of hanmost of the 20 participants, the perpetrator was the biologi- dling. These stages were then systematically applied to code cal father though in other cases, both parents were perpe- the entire empirical material, with a focus on the moments trators, or sometimes, the mother, a stepfather or another of disclosure that appeared in the three stages, providing the adult closely connected to the family was the perpetrator. To foundation for the analysis presented in this paper. In the protect the confidentiality of the children and young people, findings section, we present selected quotations as exemwe provide only limited information about the participants plars to illustrate the findings (Eldh et al., 2020), represent- (e.g., an age range such as 12–17 years rather than specific ing the material as a whole and enabling an in-depth analysis ages) and use pseudonyms. This also means that information and interpretation of participants’ experiences, reflections, on participants’ ethnicity and socioeconomic background is and perspectives on the disclosure process. limited, which constrains the extent to which the identified temporal processes can be interpreted in relation to broader Findings social and structural conditions shaping their experiences. The study was approved by the ethics committee at The The process through which the children and young peoDanish Center for Social Science Research (VIVE). Beside ple disclosed experiences with childhood abuse can be

13

understood in relation to three stages: recognition, uncov- homes, that he started to become aware of other family ering, and handling. These stages should not be seen as dynamics and began to question what was taking place in linear steps, where one leads to the next. Instead, the three his own family. Anya (age 12–17) – who had experienced stages overlap and complement each other such that they psychological violence towards herself and intimate partner intertwine or circulate back and forth over time. Each stage violence towards her mother – describes a similar experiencompasses a range of different moments that hold the ence, and narrates how her process of recognition developed potential to support the process of disclosure. Thus, these over time through different emergent moments: different moments of disclosure are constituted by various spaces of possibility. A temporal perspective highlights how Interviewer: “When did you start realizing?” these moments can unfold differently across time, influenced by the surrounding relationships and circumstances Anya: “Well … it was probably when I was quite that can open, delay, or close opportunities for disclosure. small. Because mostly when I think about home, then In the following analysis, we unpack these moments of dis- it’s something like that I remember. I don’t rememclosure. It is important to note that our aim is exploratory, ber exactly when, but I just think – so, little by little, and we do not seek to differentiate or compare forms of when you start to notice, or if you’re over at, like, your abuse. Rather, we focus on capturing shared temporal pro- friend’s place, like … if you’re there and you find out, cesses across these experiences. Accordingly, we adopt a ‘okay, it’s not happening there. Why is it happening at cross-cutting perspective across different forms of abuse to my place?’”. support the conceptual development of moments of disclosure that contain different spaces of possibility that can both As Anya explains, it can be difficult to pinpoint the exact support and constrain disclosure in relation to informal and moment of recognition; rather, it is a process of emergent formal actors. moments, which are moments that contain the possibility for developing the child’s or young person’s understanding of The Stage of Recognition the abuse. For her, this process began at a young age, when she started to notice small incidents that placed her own The first stage in the children’s and young people’s process experiences in contrast with those of others. These emerof disclosure is the stage of recognition. Previous research gent moments may contribute to shifting moments, which has shown that normalization of abuse during childhood can are moments that alter their awareness and understanding act as a barrier to disclosure, as children and young people of the abuse. However, it is not only young children who may lack an understanding of abuse, and therefore do not can lack an understand or be unsure of how to make sense question what has happened (Andresen, 2024; Jernbro et of the abuse, indicating that factors beyond age (e.g., type al., 2017; Schaeffer et al., 2011). The recognition stage thus of abuse and socio-cultural context) may shape the process concerns how the child or young person over time – through of disclosure. For Gry (age 18–25) – who had experienced emergent and shifting moments – begins to notice, under- psychological violence towards herself and intimate partner stand, and acknowledge the abuse. Their accounts indicate violence towards her mother – it was not until the age of that it is not only themselves who undergo this process of 19 that she understood that what she had experienced was recognition, but that those around them also engage in their abuse. She explains that part of what made it difficult for own process of recognition. her to understand was that her upbringing in a middle-class Among the children and young people, normalization of family in a suburban residential area did not align with her the abuse, together with a lack of knowledge or understand- ideas about the types of families in which abuse can occur. ing of it, had hindered the development of an awareness and The children’s and young people’s accounts suggest that recognition that what they were experiencing constituted recognition is a gradual process, unfolding through emerabuse. As Said (age 18–25) – who had experienced physi- gent moments that open up for potentially new understandcal and psychological violence – expresses, the violence he ings of family dynamics, and shifting moments through had experienced while growing up had become normalized: which they begin to recognize the abuse as such. “It’s very normalized, it’s really normalized. Because my Several of the children and young people describe sensing parents are good at making it seem like – my mum always that others around them also struggled to understand what says, ‘all families have problems’, it’s just a quote she has”. they were experiencing. Families may experience a range The abuse had taken place for as long as Said could remem- of problems or challenges, including abuse (Morgan, 2019). ber, and its normalization led him to refrain from question- In such contexts, individuals who sense that something ing the abuse during his early childhood. It was only around is wrong may engage in a mutual process of recognition, the age of eight, when he began spending time at his friends’ whereby both the child or young person and those around

13

them attempt to understand what is occurring. Some of the to understand and make sense of what is happening. These children and young people explained that others had sus- processes unfold over time and may occur mutually or be pected difficulties within the family, but did not necessarily staggered – meaning that the children and young people and suspect abuse. An example of this is Josefine (age 18–25), others around them may reach recognition at the same time who explains that adults around her, including school staff, or at different points in time. had interpreted her signs of distress as indicating that her mother had mental health issues, rather than recognizing The Stage of Uncovering them as signs that Josefine was being subjected to abuse: The second stage in the children’s and young people’s “The year before my parents got divorced, my mum process of disclosure is the stage of uncovering. Previwas admitted to hospital several times with depres- ous research has shown that children and young people sion. That was a big focus at the time […] So I joined may, indirectly or directly, draw attention to or tell others this support group [for children of parents with mental about abuse during childhood, or that others sense or detect health challenges]. […]. Yeah, so, I mean, I know I that something is wrong (Jernbro et al., 2017; Reitsema & talked to a lot of people, but I’m actually not sure if Grietens, 2016; Ungar et al., 2009). The uncovering stage they would realize today what it was really like”. concerns how the abuse becomes known to others. The children’s and young people’s accounts show that interactions Adults in her immediate surroundings misinterpreted her with others and others’ reactions can influence the timing of signs of distress; thus, although they noticed that something disclosure through a range of moments. These range from was wrong, no space of possibility was opened for devel- critical moments that lead to uncovering, to absent moments oping their understanding and recognition that abuse was of missed opportunity, as well as weighing moments, in also involved. Other individuals surrounding the children which the children and young people deliberate the pros and or young people – such as family members or school staff cons of disclosure. – who may harbor suspicions are also attempting to make The children and young people describe various situasense of the situation (Reitsema & Grietens, 2016). This tions in which they disclosed their experiences of abuse. process of coming to terms with what is occurring in the For many, this involved having a relationship with a family can be difficult, and some of the children and young trusted person – in particular, friends are mentioned as people describe situations in which their apparent well- trusted relations, and some also mention professionals. For being in certain contexts (e.g., at school) made it difficult example, Abdel (age 12–17) – who experienced parental for others to recognize their distress in other contexts (e.g., intimate partner violence – explains that at one point his at home). For instance, Olivia (age 12–17) describes how friend asked him if something was wrong, having noticed her strong performance at school became a barrier to others’ changes in his behavior (e.g., not going out to play football process of recognition: as he used to do). This became a critical moment in his disclosure process, as an opportunity to disclose was created “[When someone hasn’t picked up on anything], it’s (Brennan & McElvaney, 2020), because Abdel was for the also because, well, I’m the kind of person who does first time invited to share his experiences with someone he pretty well socially, if you can put it like that. Like, trusted. For some of the other children and young people, I also get good grades and stuff, so it’s not like some a space of possibility was created by staff initiating and teacher would point at me and be like, ‘that girl, she’s facilitating talks about topics of potential concern for chilgot problems at home’”. dren and young people. Victoria (age 12–17) experienced this when the staff at her after-school club brought up the Olivia experienced physical and psychological abuse that topic of abuse: persisted throughout her childhood. Despite the prolonged nature of the abuse, she believes that her well-being at “We had like a topic [about abuse] at the after-school school may have made it difficult for those in her immediate club, where we talked about it. Well, not exactly what I surroundings to recognize that she was experiencing abuse had experienced, just in general. But we sat and talked at home. Thus, certain circumstances may blur the situation, with the staff at the club. […] And I just remember that making it challenging for others to interpret the situation, day wasn’t my day. I was just down, and we had an leading to obscured moments of misread signs of distress. assembly and I started crying. Well, I was just really This suggests that the process of recognition is not limited to drained by being able to say – well, I didn’t know what the children and young people themselves, but is also under- was happening. And then she [after-school club staff] taken by those in their surroundings, who likewise attempt was the only one I could really talk to at the time. And

13

then it just came out. Well, and she listened and we they shared. These weighing moments could influence talked about it”. their disclosure, as worries about how others might react could lead to delayed or partial disclosure (see also AndreBy raising the topic of abuse in a setting where Victoria had sen, 2024; McElvaney, 2015). Something that can push the access to a trusted adult, a space of possibility was created weighing moment into a shifting or critical moment is feelin which she could share her experiences of abuse, leading ing affirmed and believed. Gry (age 18–25) describes such to a critical moment where she disclosed to a staff member. a critical moment when explaining how a neighbor affirmed Trust plays a central role in the disclosure process (Bren- her experience when she started to open up about the abuse nan & McElvaney, 2020; Jernbro et al., 2017; Lemaigre et that had taken place throughout much of her childhood: al., 2017). This is exemplified by some of the children and young people, who describe moments when their lack of trust “This neighbor, who affirms the experience I’ve had… in a person led them to deny that anything was wrong or to and who hears me and sees me and isn’t afraid to engage avoid the question when asked about their family situation. with all the things that can be really, really hard, I imagine, These situations represent absent moments of missed oppor- to listen to from a child you… know and have watched tunity, where the potential to share experiences of abuse was grow up and probably care about to some extent”. undermined by the child’s or young person’s lack of trust. Other children and young people describe how a sense of The neighbor validated Gry’s experiences, which led her being overwhelmed by various forms of worry, pressure, and to confide further, and the neighbor subsequently filed a stress created a need to disclose (see also Brennan & McEl- report to the authorities. This represents a critical moment, vaney, 2020). For example, Gry (age 18–25) recounts a criti- in which the response of others contributed to the process cal moment where combined factors, including illness in the of disclosure and enabled the authorities to become aware family and pressure at school, on top of the abuse she had of the abuse. Children and young people may be uncertain experienced, resulted in feelings of cognitive and emotional about their experiences, and if they are met with mistrust overwhelmingness, prompting her to disclose to a school or doubt, this can reinforce their own uncertainty or lead therapist. Such moments show that the relationships and con- them to refrain from raising the issue again. Therefore, these text surrounding the children and young people may influence different moments of disclosure are also fragile moments. each moment and its potential to contribute to disclosure. Such moments unfold in relation to and through interaction The reactions of others when children and young people with other people and contextual factors in the children’s disclose can influence how moments of disclosure unfold and young people’s lives, making it uncertain what charac- (see also Reitsema & Grietens, 2016). The children and ter the different moments will take, what will follow afteryoung people express that such reactions – and the anticipa- wards, and ultimately what significance a moment will hold. tion of these – could impact their disclosure. This occurred through weighing moments, in which the children and The Stage of Handling young people balanced the potential risks and benefits of disclosing abuse to others. Such moments were particu- The third stage in the children’s and young people’s prolarly evident in concerns about how others might react to cess of disclosure is the stage of handling. During this stage, the information, including whether they would be believed the case is formally addressed by the authorities. Previous (e.g., dismissed), how the information would be handled by research has shown that the period following the uncovothers (e.g., shared further), and the potential consequences ering of childhood abuse can be challenging for children of disclosing (e.g., reprisals from the perpetrator). Some and young people, and may be characterized by ambiguof the children and young people also expressed concerns ous emotions – such as fear of what may happen, but also about whether it would change others’ view of them. An hope of a new future (Linell, 2017). The handling stage thus example of this is Isabella (age 12–17) who says: “I was, concerns how the children and young people experience and still am, scared to tell everything. Because I think I disclosing abuse while their case is being addressed. This have this idea that if people know, then they’ll change the happens within an institutional temporality where specific way they see me. Like, I also don’t want to be a victim”. steps and procedures can entail various moments, such as Isabella expresses that she does not want to be seen as a awaiting moments and limiting moments. victim and has therefore been cautious about to whom and When a case of childhood abuse is handled by the authorhow much she discloses. Similarly, some of the other chil- ities, it proceeds through a series of procedural steps that dren and young people articulated that they did not want vary according to the nature of the case, thereby unfolding to be seen as victims, while others explained that they did within a formal institutional temporality. Many of the chilnot want to stand out and were therefore careful about what dren and young people held expectations about how their

13

case would unfold. However, these expectations were not range of new professionals, for example child welfare seralways reflected in the way the case subsequently developed vices, healthcare services and police. The children and young and how the children and young people experienced the people had to relate to these professionals and through weightempo of the case. For some, this resulted in an experience ing moments decide what, and how much, to share. Time of nothing happening, while others describe how their case played an important role, as the children and young people progressed more quickly than they had anticipated. This lat- did not always experience that there was sufficient time in ter experience is narrated by Victoria (age 12–17). When formal conversations to build a trusting relationship, which she disclosed the abuse to a professional at her after-school could influence the spaces of possibility to disclose. Anya club, she had not anticipated that the information would be (age 12–17) illustrates this, explaining that she initially did communicated to others so quickly: “I just didn’t know it not want to speak with child welfare professionals or other would escalate so quickly – that it would be such a fast pro- adults about the psychological violence she had experienced: cess, you know, going from one thing to another, and then moving here and there”. In this way, some of the children “I think I never really felt that any of the social workers, and young people describe temporal processes that were or any of the adults who were there for the child interout of sync with their expectations, proceeding either more views, were like … well, I never really trusted them. And slowly or more quickly than they had anticipated. The insti- I guess it was kind of hard to talk about stuff when it was tutional temporality also produced waiting periods – await- people I’d only just met. And then also just, you know, ing moments, where the children and young people had to the setting, and the fact that I was pretty little … I mean, await certain steps. For some of the children and young it was just super anxiety provoking, like, now I’m being people, this could influence their disclosure. One girl (age put in a room with someone I don’t even know, and then 12–17) who had experienced sexual abuse describes how I’m supposed to start talking about all kinds of things”. she had to wait for the perpetrator to be interviewed by the police before she could be interviewed herself: Similar to Anya, other children and young people expressed a tension in relation to the expectation to share their personal “Regarding all that stuff with grooming and things like experiences with professionals they had just met. Trust in that, I really wasn’t allowed to talk about it properly. professional relationships is created and evolves over time They [police] were very interested in, uh, the abuse (Vikander & Källström, 2023), which can become chalitself, and everything else didn’t really matter to them. lenged in institutional contexts where children and young Because, well, that was what he [the perpetrator] had people have to talk to various professionals they barely know said. They often said things like that. I also had to – sometimes in single, one-off meetings. Some of the children respond to some of the things he had said. Then they and young people emphasized the importance of professionwould bring up quotes he’d made, and I had to – you als taking the time to build trust with them. For example, Kofi know – comment on them. And then, what’s it called, (age 12–17) gives the following advice to professionals: “You it wasn’t really important to them when I said, ‘but just need to get to know each other and not… well, just go this happened’, it was like, ‘oh, but back to where we straight into the same things all the time”. In this sense, the were’. So, when I tried to bring up something I felt children and young people point out that time itself plays an was important, it wasn’t important to them, because it important role in the stage of handling when they engage in wasn’t abuse, you know”. relationships and interactions with people they have not had the opportunity to get to know or build trust with. Thus, durInterviewing the perpetrator first meant that she was primar- ing the stage of handling, the combination of potential awaitily required to respond to his account. This, in turn, cre- ing moments, limiting moments, and a lack of time to build ated a limiting moment – a moment in which what can be trust in professionals may reduce the spaces of possibility for discussed or disclosed is constrained – which made it dif- the children and young people to tell their stories and bring ficult for her to bring attention to other aspects. Thus, the attention to what is important to them. sequence of events made it difficult for her to articulate what was important to her, thereby limiting her disclosure. These examples illustrate how institutional temporality can be out Discussion of sync with children’s and young people’s expectations and needs, and how this disharmony can limit the creation of Our findings illuminate how children and young people disspaces of possibility to disclose. close experiences of childhood abuse that has taken place During the stage of handling, the children and young within a family context, highlighting the different moments people became part of a case process that often involved a that can support or constrain disclosure to both informal and

13

formal relations. Disclosure unfolds through three stages – Table 1 Moments of disclosure recognition, uncovering and handling – that are constituted Moment Space of possibility Critical An important moment that leads to realized change by different moments representing multiple spaces of posmoment and transformation in the process of disclosure. sibility, in which opportunities for disclosing abuse may be Shifting An altering moment that prompts initial or further opened, delayed, or closed. While the three stages describe moment recognition of the abuse. the broader trajectory of disclosure, the moments identified Emergent A potential moment containing the possibility for in this study capture the changing possibilities that can arise moment the development of a gradual understanding and within and across these stages. By applying a temporal per- recognition of the abuse. Weighing A reflective moment of balancing the possible spective, we emphasize how interactions with other people moment positive and negative consequences of disclosure. and surrounding circumstances influence these moments, Awaiting A suspended moment involving a period of waitthereby bringing attention to the different and changing moment ing, during which children and young people await moments that constitute the process of disclosure. the opportunity to disclose. The analysis has identified different moments of dis- Limiting A constraining moment that restricts the ability to moment disclose and narrows what can be disclosed. closure that are constituted by various spaces of possibilObscured A blurred moment in which other factors overity that shape the children’s and young people’s process of moment shadow the possibility to recognize that the situadisclosure. The analysis emphasizes the uncertainty that tion is impacted by abuse. these moments contain as to whether – and in what ways Absent A missed moment that could have been an oppor- – they may lead to change. As research on turning points moment tunity for disclosure but where this possibility is and critical moments has shown, such moments can be both missed. positive and negative as well as ‘big’ and ‘small’ (Allnock, 2017; Schinkel, 2019; Thomson et al., 2002). Table 1 pres- as occurring on a continuum in which different forms of disents a conceptual framework of the moments of disclosure closure are not mutually exclusive (Alaggia, 2004; Bacon identified in this study. This framework is not intended as & Richardson, 2000; Bloomfield-Utting & Skinner, 2025). an exhaustive typology of all possible moments; instead, Rather than viewing disclosure as a distinct type – delayed, it illustrates the moments that arose for these children and partial, or full – we understand disclosure as fluid, tempoyoung people. The moments encompass emergent moments ral, and relational, unfolding across different spaces of posof potential and shifting moments of initial recognition, as sibility that may change over time. From this perspective, well as critical moments in which change is realized, and disclosure cannot be categorized as one type or as a process absent moments where opportunities are missed. Moreover, that necessarily moves towards greater or more complete such moments are influenced by other people and surround- disclosure. Instead, disclosure may at times be withheld, ing circumstances – for example, others’ understandings cautious, or partial, at other times more complete, and in and reactions, life circumstances, and institutional pro- some instances entirely absent. This underscores how the cesses. These include weighing moments in which the chil- context – such as the surrounding people and circumstances dren and young people balance risks and benefits, obscured – influences how disclosure unfolds at a given moment. moments in which other factors overshadow recognition, Viewed in this way, the different moments of disclosure can and moments of awaiting and limitation, in which the chil- all be part of a single overarching process for the individual, dren and young people must wait for or are restricted in their representing different possibilities through which experidisclosure. Thus, the moments that make up the children’s ences of abuse may, or may not, be shared. This approach and young people’s processes of disclosure do not neces- to disclosure opens a more nuanced space for understandsarily lead to change (e.g., that others become aware of the ing the inherent fragility in disclosure. It highlights how abuse); they can be ambivalent and uncertain or moments relationships and surrounding circumstances can influence marked by missed opportunities. While some moments can whether a moment of disclosure leads to change (e.g., that be considered critical or as turning points because they had others become aware of the abuse) or whether the opportua significant influence on the process of disclosure, other nity is missed. moments might represent emerging points that only later The findings have implications for practitioners working come to hold significance – or even ‘no points’, where pos- in general settings (e.g., kindergartens or schools) who intersibilities for change were absent or unrealized. act with children and young people daily, as well as for pracPrevious research has advanced our understanding of titioners involved in the uncovering and handling of abuse disclosure by showing that it can take multiple forms, and (e.g., police officers and psychologists). Consistent with may be partial, delayed, indirect, or unintentional (Alaggia, previous research (Allnock & Miller, 2013; Linell, 2017), 2004; McElvaney, 2015; Ungar et al., 2009). In this paper, our study suggests that children and young people may we contribute to the literature that conceptualizes disclosure lack knowledge about abuse, and that their understanding

13

of their experiences often develops gradually over time. result, it is not possible to assess whether particular moments Meanwhile, practitioners working in general settings and or processes within disclosure are differently salient or unfold other adults close to children and young people must inter- in distinct ways across different types of abuse. While previpret and respond to signals that can be ambiguous (Reit- ous research suggests that some aspects of disclosure may be sema & Grietens, 2016). This means that disclosure may not shared across abuse types – for example, weighing moments occur simultaneously for all involved. This asynchronicity identified in studies of both sexual abuse (Landberg et al., can result in misunderstandings or missed opportunities if 2023) and parental intimate partner violence (Callaghan et the child is ready to disclose but the adult is not attuned, or al., 2017) – it also indicates that certain processes may vary has not developed an understanding of the abuse (Adam, depending on the form of abuse. For example, studies of 1995; Alaggia, 2004). In these processes, children’s, young sexual abuse often highlight shame and self-blame as central people’s and adults’ recognition may be out of sync, which barriers to disclosure (see e.g., Brennan & McElvaney, 2020). calls for patience, continuity, and revisiting the invitation to This may shape weighing moments, but can also limit what talk – all of which are important, as they can potentially cre- is disclosed. Thus, while similar moments may be observed ate critical moments of disclosure. Time and trust are central across different forms of abuse, the conditions shaping how to the disclosure process. This has implications for practitio- they unfold may vary. Given the size and composition of the ners in general settings, as children and young people need present group of participants, it is not possible to disentangle opportunities to disclose at their own pace and to open up such differences. Future studies with larger and more tarover time. It is also relevant for practitioners involved in geted samples would be needed to examine how disclosure the uncovering and handling of abuse, as institutional proce- processes may differ across abuse types and to develop more dures and case progression can shape children’s and young differentiated understandings that could inform tailored people’s experiences of the tempo of handling. Moreover, responses and interventions. the requirement to share experiences with unfamiliar professionals during the stage of handling may limit the development of trust and, consequently, disclosure (Vikander Conclusion & Källström, 2023). Practitioners across different settings should recognize that disclosure is a dynamic, fragile pro- Children’s and young people’s disclosure of childhood abuse is cess that unfolds over multiple moments, each of which may a process that unfolds over time in relation to and through intercontribute to eventual recognition of abuse. Small moments action with other people and surrounding circumstances. This that create space for reflection, revisiting invitations to talk, process can be understood as constituting different moments and maintaining continuity can cumulatively support disclo- of disclosure – that is, different spaces of possibility that hold sure. Children and young people may also employ strategies the potential to support children’s and young people’s disto navigate potential risks and benefits of disclosure. Prac- closure. Framing the analysis within a temporal perspective titioners should handle these spaces of possibility carefully (Adam, 1995; Allnock, 2017; Andresen, 2024; Thomson et al., to avoid closing them and invest in building trust, which is 2002), we have developed a conceptual framework of different critical for enabling disclosure. moments of disclosure, contributing to the literature that seeks Future research could explore whether certain moments to move beyond a focus on initial disclosure and distinct cator strategies are particularly significant at different stages egories (Alaggia, 2004; Allnock, 2017; Bloomfield-Utting & of disclosure, or whether their impact varies depending on Skinner, 2025) to viewing disclosure as a fluid, temporal, and the type of abuse. Understanding these patterns could offer relational process that unfolds through various spaces of posvaluable guidance for researchers and practitioners aiming to sibility. Our framework for moments of disclosure foregrounds recognize, uncover, and respond effectively to experiences the relationships and surrounding circumstances, showing how of abuse among children and young people. Such research these may influence each moment and its potential to contribute could also investigate whether certain moments of disclo- to change. Whether critical or seemingly absent, each moment sure are more likely to emerge in informal versus formal constitutes a space of possibility, holding the potential to become contexts, and how relational or institutional factors shape significant within the broader trajectory of disclosure. However, these spaces of possibility over time. Our study included the extent to which this potential is realized depends on the surparticipants with diverse experiences of abuse, which rounding circumstances, which may influence whether experiallowed us to identify patterns that may cut across differ- ences of abuse are shared with others. ent types of experiences. However, the number of partici- Conceptualizing disclosure as occurring on a continuum pants representing each specific type of abuse was limited. opens a window into the complex landscape that disclosure In particular, only a small number of children and young represents (see also Bloomfield-Utting & Skinner, 2025). people in the sample had experienced sexual abuse. As a It reveals how disclosure is a fragile process in which the

13

source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate child’s or young person’s own understandings, thoughts, and if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this expectations – together with the relationships and circum- article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless stances surrounding them – can both enable and constrain the indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not spaces of possibility that arise and are created. This makes it included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted possible to examine how, when, and under what circumstances use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright disclosure unfolds through different moments. Viewing dis- holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit ​h​t​t​​p​:​/​/​​c​r​e​​a​t​i​​v​e​c​o​m​m​o​n​s​.​o​ closure in this way underscores that it may take different forms r​g​/​l​i​c​e​n​s​e​s​/​b​y​/​4​.​0​/​​​​.​​ for each child or young person, shaped by whom they interact with and by other circumstances present in their lives. In some moments, a child or young person may offer detailed References accounts of their experiences, whereas in other moments, they may refrain from sharing their experiences. Although the out- Adam, B. (1995). Timewatch. Blackwell Publishers. Adriansen, H. K. (2012). Timeline interviews: A tool for conducting comes of these moments may be uncertain, each contributes to life history research. Qualitative Studies, 3(1), 40–55. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​ shaping children’s and young people’s process of disclosure. o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​7​1​4​6​/​q​s​.​v​3​i​1​.​6​2​7​2​​​​ Even though these moments may seem small in their signifi- Alaggia, R. (2004). Many ways of telling: Expanding conceptualizacance, or may not appear as moments at all, over time they tions of child sexual abuse disclosure. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28(11), 1213–1227. https:/​/doi.or​g/10.10​16/j.​chiabu.2004.03.016 can represent important points in children’s and young peo- Alaggia, R., Collin-Vézina, D., & Lateef, R. (2019). Facilitators and ple’s disclosure trajectories. Gaining a deeper understanding barriers to child sexual abuse (CSA) disclosures: A research of these moments, their potential, and their significance over update (2000–2016). Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 20(2), 260–283. time can help further both our research-based and practice-ori- https:/​/doi.or​g/10.11​77/15​24838017697312 Allnock, D. (2017). Memorable life events and disclosure of child sexented understanding of how disclosure takes place by drawing ual abuse: Possibilities and challenges across diverse contexts. the attention to the factors that can enhance the recognition, Families Relationships and Societies, 6(2), 185–200. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​ uncovering and handling of childhood abuse against children r​g​/​1​0​.​1​3​3​2​/​2​0​4​6​7​4​3​1​7​X​1​4​8​6​6​4​5​5​1​1​8​1​4​2​​​​ and young people. Allnock, D., & Miller, P. (2013). No one noticed, no one heard: A study of disclosures of childhood abuse. NSPCC. Andresen, S. (2024). Time as a Category in Survivors’ Reports About Acknowledgements We wish to thank the children and young people Child Sexual Abuse: An Explorative Approach to Lifetime Abuse. who participated in this study. We are profoundly grateful for their Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 39(19–20), 4065–4086. https:/​ willingness to share experiences that may be difficult to talk about. /doi.or​g/10.11​77/08​862605241264525 Their generosity, time, and openness made this research possible and Bacon, H., & Richardson, S. (2000). Child sexual abuse and the conhave contributed important insights into the processes of disclosure of tinuum of victim disclosure. In C. Itzin (Ed.), Home truths about violence and sexual abuse. child sexual abuse (pp. 235–276). Routledge. Bloomfield-Utting, J., & Skinner, T. (2025). Reframing informal disAuthor Contributions Author A conceived the study and wrote the closures of sexual violence as ‘an ongoing conversation’: How project description to secure funding. Author A designed the methodol- victim-survivors discuss victimisation with friends, family and ogy. Both authors collected the data, analysed the results, contributed partners. Journal of Gender-Based Violence. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​3​ to writing the manuscript, and approved the final version. 3​2​/​2​3​9​8​6​8​0​8​Y​2​0​2​5​D​0​0​0​0​0​0​1​0​8​​​​ Brattfjell, M. L., & Flåm, A. M. (2019). They were the ones that saw Funding Open access funding provided by The Danish Centre Of Ap- me and listened.” From child sexual abuse to disclosure: Adults’ plied Social Science. This work was supported by the The Danish Au- recalls of the process towards final disclosure. Child Abuse and thority of Social Services and Housing (June 2023). Neglect, 89, 225–236. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​h​i​a​b​u​.​2​0​1​8​.​1​1​.​0​ 2​2​​​​ Data Availability The data supporting the findings of this study are not Brennan, E., & McElvaney, R. (2020). What Helps Children Tell? A publicly available due to their sensitive nature and to protect partici- Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Child Sexual Abuse Disclosure. pant confidentiality. Child Abuse Review, 29(2), 97–113. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​0​2​/​c​a​r​.​ 2​6​1​7​​​​ Callaghan, J. E. M., Fellin, L. C., Mavrou, S., Alexander, J., & SixDeclarations smith, J. (2017). The Management of Disclosure in Children’s Accounts of Domestic Violence: Practices of Telling and Not Ethical Approval The study received ethical approval from The Re- Telling. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(12), 3370–3387. search Ethics Committee at The Danish Center for Social Science Re- https:/​/doi.or​g/10.10​07/s1​0826-017-0832-3 search (VIVE) (reference number 2023/5). Eldh, A. C., Årestedt, L., & Berterö, C. (2020). Quotations in qualitative studies: Reflections on constituents, custom, and purpose. Competing interest The authors declare that they have no competing International Journal of Qualitative Methods. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​ interests. 1​1​7​7​/​1​6​0​9​4​0​6​9​2​0​9​6​9​2​6​8​​​​ Eriksson, M., & Näsman, E. (2012). Interviews with children exposed Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons to violence. Children and Society, 26(1), 63–73. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​ Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, 0​.​1​1​1​1​/​j​.​1​0​9​9​-​0​8​6​0​.​2​0​1​0​.​0​0​3​2​2​.​x​​​​ adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, Evang, A., & Øverlien, C. (2015). If You Look, You Have to Leave: as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the Young Children Regulating Research Interviews about Experiences

13

of Domestic Violence. Journal of Early Childhood Research, Morgan, D. H. J. (2019). Family Troubles, Troubling Families, and 13(2), 113–125. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​1​7​7​/​1​4​7​6​7​1​8​X​1​4​5​3​8​5​9​5​​​​ Family Practices. Journal of Family Issues, 40(16), 2225–2238. Goodman-Brown, T. B., Edelstein, R. S., Goodman, G. S., Jones, D. https:/​/doi.or​g/10.11​77/01​92513X19848799 P. H., & Gordon, D. S. (2003). Why children tell: A model of Morris, A., Hegarty, K., & Humphreys, C. (2012). Ethical and safe: children’s disclosure of sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, Research with children about domestic violence. Research Eth27(5), 525–540. https:/​/doi.or​g/10.10​16/S0​145-2134(03)00037-1 ics, 8(2), 125–139. https:/​/doi.or​g/10.11​77/17​47016112445420 Henze-Pedersen, S. (2026). The Interlacement of Violence: Three Morrison, S. E., Bruce, C., & Wilson, S. (2018). Children’s discloTemporalities of Violence in Everyday Life. Sociology, 60(1), sure of sexual abuse: A systematic review of qualitative research 173–189. https:/​/doi.or​g/10.11​77/00​380385251343490 exploring barriers and facilitators. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, Holland, J., & Thomson, R. (2009). Gaining perspective on choice and 27(2), 176–194. https:/​/doi.or​g/10.10​80/10​538712.2018.1425943 fate. European Societies, 11(3), 451–469. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​8​0​ Øverlien, C., & Holt, S. (2018). Including Children and Adolescents in /​1​4​6​1​6​6​9​0​9​0​2​7​6​4​7​9​9​​​​ Domestic Violence Research: When Myths and Misconceptions Jensen, T. K., Gulbrandsen, W., Mossige, S., Reichelt, S., & Tjersland, Compromise Participation. In S. Holt, C. Øverlien, & J. Devaney O. A. (2005). Reporting possible sexual abuse: A qualitative (Eds.), Responding to Domestic Violence (pp. 97–112). Jessica study on children’s perspectives and the context for disclosure. Kingsley Publishers. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29(12), 1395–1413. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​ Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. .​1​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​h​i​a​b​u​.​2​0​0​5​.​0​7​.​0​0​4​​​​ SAGE Publications. Jernbro, C., Otterman, G., Lucas, S., Tindberg, Y., & Janson, S. (2017). Reitsema, A. M., & Grietens, H. (2016). Is anybody listening? the litDisclosure of Child Physical Abuse and Perceived Adult Support erature on the dialogical process of child sexual abuse disclosure among Swedish Adolescents. Child Abuse Review, 26, 451–464. reviewed. Trauma Violence and Abuse, 17(3), 330–340. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​ https://doi.org/10.1002/car o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​1​7​7​/​1​5​2​4​8​3​8​0​1​5​5​8​4​3​6​8​​​​ Landberg, Å., Kaldal, A., & Eriksson, M. (2023). Paths of disclosure – Schaeffer, P., Leventhal, J. M., & Asnes, A. G. (2011). Children’s The process of sharing experiences of child sexual abuse. Children disclosures of sexual abuse: Learning from direct inquiry. Child and Society, 37(5), 1535–1554. ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​​​g​/​1​0​.​1​1​1​1​/​c​h​s​o​.​1​2​7​1​0​​​​ Abuse and Neglect, 35(5), 343–352. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​h​i​ Lemaigre, C., Taylor, E. P., & Gittoes, C. (2017). Barriers and facilita- a​b​u​.​2​0​1​1​.​0​1​.​0​1​4​​​​ tors to disclosing sexual abuse in childhood and adolescence: A Schinkel, M. (2019). Rethinking Turning Points: Trajectories of Parsystematic review. Child Abuse and Neglect, 70, 39–52. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​ enthood and Desistance. Journal of Developmental and Lifeo​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​h​i​a​b​u​.​2​0​1​7​.​0​5​.​0​0​9​​​​ Course Criminology, 5(3), 366–386. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​0​7​/​s​4​0​ Lev-Wiesel, R., & First, M. (2018). Willingness to disclose child mal- 8​6​5​-​0​1​9​-​0​0​1​2​1​-​8​​​​ treatment: CSA vs other forms of child abuse in relation to gen- Thomson, R., Bell, R., Holland, J., Henderson, S., McGrellis, S., & der. Child Abuse and Neglect, 79, 183–191. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​ Sharpe, S. (2002). Critical moments: Choice, chance and oppor1​6​/​j​.​c​h​i​a​b​u​.​2​0​1​8​.​0​2​.​0​1​0​​​​ tunity in young people’s narratives of transition. Sociology, 36(2), Linell, H. (2017). The process of disclosing child abuse: A study of 335–354. https:/​/doi.or​g/10.11​77/00​38038502036002006 Swedish Social Services protection in child abuse cases. Child and Thulin, J., Kjellgren, C., & Nilsson, D. (2020). Children’s Disclosure Family Social Work, 22, 11–19. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​1​1​1​/​c​f​s​.​1​2​2​4​5​​​​ of Physical Abuse - The Process of Disclosing and the Responses Mason, J. (2002). Qualitative Researching. SAGE Publications. from Social Welfare Workers. Child Care in Practice, 26(3), 285– Mathews, B., Finkelhor, D., Collin-Vézina, D., Malacova, E., Thomas, 299. https:/​/doi.or​g/10.10​80/13​575279.2018.1555139 H. J., Scott, J. G., Higgins, D. J., Meinck, F., Pacella, R., Erskine, Ungar, M., Barter, K., McConnell, S. M., Tutty, L. M., & Fairholm, H. E., Haslam, D. M., & Lawrence, D. (2025). Disclosure and J. (2009). Patterns of abuse disclosure among youth. Qualitative non-disclosure of childhood sexual abuse in Australia: Results Social Work, 8(3), 341–356. ​h​t​t​​p​s​:​/​​/​d​o​​i​.​o​​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​1​7​7​/​1​4​7​3​3​2​5​0​0​9​ from a national survey. Child Abuse and Neglect, 160, 1–13. 3​3​7​8​4​2​​​​ https:/​/doi.or​g/10.10​16/j.​chiabu.2024.107183 Vikander, M., & Källström, Å. (2023). What children exposed to McElvaney, R. (2015). Disclosure of Child Sexual Abuse: Delays, domestic violence value when meeting social workers: A pracNon-disclosure and Partial Disclosure. What the Research Tells tice-oriented systematic research review. Child and Family Social Us and Implications for Practice. Child Abuse Review, 24(3), Work, 1–12. https:​​​//d​oi.​or​g/10​.11​​11/cfs.13073 159–169. https:/​/doi.or​g/10.10​02/ca​r.2280 McElvaney, R., Greene, S., & Hogan, D. (2014). To tell or not to tell? Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisFactors influencing young people’s informal disclosures of child dictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(5), 928–947. https:/​/doi.or​g/10.11​77/08​86260513506281

13